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ENSURING AN INDUSTRY I 




ISSUED BY 

NATIONAL CANNERS ASSOCIATIONS^? 



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WASHINGTON, D. C. 



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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
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http://www.archive.org/details/insuringindustryOOnati 





RESEARCH LABORATORIES. 1739 H STREET, N. W., WASHINGTON, D. C. 



INSURING an INDUSTRY 



ISSUED BY 

NATIONAL CANNERS ASSOCIATION 

WASHINGTON, D. C. 



THE LORD BALTIMORE PRESS 
BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A. 



A ^ 



FOEEWOED. 

Between the covers of this booklet are recorded a number of facts. 
They are presented primarily for the purpose of answering the ques- 
tion, What and Why is The National Canners, Association ? 

But whether he be an old member of this Association, or a new 
member, or one whose daily routine brings him into contact with 
some phase or product of canning — let the reader bear in mind also 
that these facts automatically fulfill yet another mission : 

To train the spotlight upon the present creeds of a representative 
American industry. 



LVTIJODTTTIOX. 

More than a hundred years ago the National Canners Association 
was unwittingly started on its career by one Nicholas Appert, a 
Frenchman. In addition to this achievement he won undying fame 
as the founder of the art of canning. And there is method in the 
apparent madness of putting the cart before the horse in the above 
statement. 

The mere fact that this Frenchman was the first man to succeed 
in preserving foods by heating them in sealed containers makes him 
directly responsible for the founding of this Association. For in 
making this discovery he laid the foundations for a colossal industry. 
which as the years have passed has developed into a .universal 
institution. The canning of foods keeps pace with and fosters our 
very civilized progress. 

To-day this industry is an inseparable element of our prosperity. 
Destroy the art and the industry and our national development 
would be arrested. 

So by virtue of the very logic of cause and effect, this Association 
has come into being. The art and practice of canning foods has 
spread throughout the civilized world: it now represents an invest- 
ment in canning establishments in the United States alone of more 
than two hundred million dollars. Furthermore this industry did 
and does now represent something more than a mere investment of 
two hundred million dollars for personal gain : 

The preparation of canned foods has become a public service. 
The public must be served and protected as well as the investment. 
Failure to recognize this obligation would spell disaster — for canner 
and consumer alike. 

And because of the tremendous growth of this industry, there 
naturally have developed innumerable problems and obstacles to be 
overcome before the industry could run without stripping its gears 
and before open paths for its future expansion could be hacked 
through a wilderness of complex difficulties. 

7 



Individual effort on the part of canners to solve these problems 
and smooth the way for future expansion of their business has been 
made and has accomplished a great deal. But the psychology of the 
situation early brought out the truth that no canner works unto 
himself alone; his interests are intertwined with those of his fellow 
canners. 

He cannot build a wall around his business, lock the door against 
all comers and succeed in seclusion. His business needs breath- 
ing space, and companionship, a mutual exchange of ideas — 
co-operation ! 

And so there came about a voluntary get-together in the industry, 
a fusing of aims and ideas, working to a common end, through a 
centralized machine. The National Canners Association was not 
created; it sprang automatically into being by pressure of the law 
that two heads are better than one when searching for a common 
prize. 

The present Association dates its inception from the year 1907, 
when earlier formed organizations voluntarily welded their aims 
and efforts into the new organization. And the basic cause of this 
inevitable get-together was a general desire on the part of American 
canners to see the United States Congress pass adequate national 
legislation for the protection of both producer and consumer of 
canned foods. Correct and rational sanitation requirements for the 
pack was the issue. The result was the passage of the National 
Food and Drugs Act. 

And building up its activities on that sturdy cornerstone, the 
Association has now become a constructive mechanism, made, run, 
and kept in repair by the canners, the affiliated associations and the 
trade at large for the betterment of the industry and the protection 
of the public. 



ENSURING AN ENDUSTRY. 
I. The Com rsiox of Tongues. 

Although the Association is to-day the heartiest champion of the 

Federal Fond and Drugs? Act. there is due the confession that its 
operation has entailed a tremendous amount of work upon that 
body. The operation of this act is altogether wonderful in its 
intricacies. This is the direct result of the necessity of promulga- 
ting genera] or blanket legal provisions which must be interpreted 
to meet the needs of certain specific cases falling within their juris- 
diction. What is meant by an insanitary can of food? When is a 
can of food rightfully outlawed ? There is a vast difference between 
a can of food presenting an off appearance due wholly to mechanical 
defects and one spoiled by chemical or bacteriological action. 

The canner who produces within the area circumscribed by this 
act frequently must have a pilot for safe steering through its danger 
zones. The Association undertakes to do this piloting. What with 
a backward glance over reams of correspondence and files of 
opinions rendered by the Association's retained attorneys, this 
Association feels that its members are unquestionably well served 
in this respect. 

The cases which come up for this Association to handle as the 
result of misinterpretation by canners of the Food and Drugs Act 
are well-nigh innumerable. It would be impossible to dwell at 
length upon them. However, one or two typical ones may serve to 
convey the motive of this chapter. 

" What in the name of all that is logical have I clone to bring- 
down the wrath of the Government officials on me and my product ? 
They tell me I have violated the Food and Drugs Act. When, 
where, how? I know of no violation which I have committed. 1 
felt sure that my product was immune from seizure. Please advise 
me." 

This is a typical case. Now the Association is prepared to receive 
and act upon just such cases. It frequently happens the violation 

11 



has been absolutely unintentional, due entirely to an ignorance of 
some specific interpretation of the act itself. In such cases, when 
the Association has satisfied itself as to their merit, immediate 
steps are taken to present the facts in their true light before the 
Federal authorities. 

If it develops that a member's violation of the act was of such a 
nature that he should be held strictly accountable, then the Asso- 
ciation immediately drops the case. It lias not. does not, and will 
not defend any member whose methods are proved to be in the least 
intentionally unethical. 

As an illustration of the above: There recently came to the 
attention of this Association the appeal of a canner whose pack was 
found to be short in weight. The canner protested that he had been 
putting up this pack for a number of years, that in bis own plant the 
contents had weighed out correctly in conformity with the state- 
ment on the label, and that it was beyond him how the charge could 
be made. 

Here was a case demanding rigid investigation by the Association 
before it undertook to commit itself. Accordingly, one of its experts 
was dispatched to the plant in question, lie made a thorough in- 
spection of its methods and found a single Haw which cleared up 
the whole mystery. The canner's methods were a shade off. Should 
he continue to operate under those methods there would certainly 
be more trouble ahead for him. He was advised of this fact. He 
was also advised of the fact that the Association would keep it- 
official bands oil' his case unless he agreed to modify his methods so 
as to make his pack immune to further criticism. 

Another instance: A member of this Association was notified by 
Federal authorities that a certain product put out under his name 
and brand label fell below standard requirements. He appealed to 
the Association. The Association looked into the case ami learned 
that the canned food in question had been bought from a second 
canner and marketed under the defendant"- own Label. 

The defendant was entirely ignorant of any violation of the Food 
and Drugs Act. Xeverthele>-. there had been a violation and he 
was so advised by the Association. The Association, with him. laid 
the entire case before the Federal authorities at the hearing. There 
was no effort on the part of the defendant to deny responsibility. 

12 



The trouble arose from his failure to thorough!} investigate the 
product he was buying al the second plant. 

Through the medium of regular printed bulletins and through 
personal letters, the Association keeps its members advised on ever} 
ruling under or modification in the Food and Drugs Act. Further- 
more, it invariably offers a correct interpretation of such rulings. 
Such interpretations are made by the Association's retained 
attorneys. This service really forestalls an immense amounl of 
confusion and serious consequences. 

As was Qoted in the introduction, this Association is an insepa 
rable unit of the American canning industry. Whatever force 
militates against the good name of one single member of this Asso- 
ciation, militates against the entire industry. The industry cannot 
afford to tolerate unethical canners, nor does it so far as the jurisdic- 
tion of its Association allow-. For which reason it has happened in 
rare cases that the Association has requested a member to withdraw 
his name from its membership list. Its future polity will be shaped 
in strict accord with this principle. 

In the matter of sanitation in the plant the Association cannot 
be too emphatic in saying that not only does it approve of strict 
sanitary regulations as drawn up and enforced by individual states, 
but its Committee on Sanitation constantly designs and presents to 
state legislatures definite forms of legislation on this subject. And 
many states have thought it wise to adopt these recommendations 
and frame them into laws. 

There has been unlimited confusion throughout the industry duv 
to conflicting state laws affecting canned foods moved intrastate and 
interstate. This Association took the initial steps to urge the Com- 
missioners on Uniform State Laws to urge upon state legislatures 
the necessity of passing such laws as would conform closely to the 
provisions of the Xational Food and Drugs Act. The result of such 
state legislation will be that one label on the can will meet all 
requirements of state and Federal laws. 

Confusion defying the powers of description has followed the 
passage of the Xet Weight Act. Since the canning industry pre- 
sents many exceptions to the policy of Federal authorities in making 
general regulations for all kinds of foods and containers, innumer- 
able inquiries have been received by the Secretary of the Association 

15 



from canners asking for interpretations of this act to cover specific 
cases. 

It should be remembered that the very location of the head- 
quarters of the Association, Washington, D. C, simplifies the han- 
dling of such inquiries. The Secretary is in daily touch with 
numerous Federal officials whose opinions are from time to time 
made public to the canners through the Association's Publicity 
Bureau. 

It has been demonstrated that prompt and trustworthy informa- 
tion on Government rulings regarding the regulations imposed upon 
canned foods are of inestimable value to the canners. A clearly 
mapped-out course well within the provisions of the law is much to 
be preferred to an adjustment of trouble arising from violations due 
to misinterpretations. Forewarned is forearmed. 

For the first time in the history of canning there has been com- 
piled a complete resume of all the national and state food laws, and 
so compiled as to make it readable and usable. This work has been 
done by the Association for the benefit of its members. 

Let it be remembered : 

That the headquarters of the National Canners Association are 
located in Washington, D. C, within a few minutes walk and in 
direct telephonic communication with every Department in the 
Government ; 

That the Secretary of the Association and his assistants are 
charged with the duty of serving the interests of its members, 
particularly with regard to interpreting new rulings and new 
legislation, attending hearings, and in securing such data and other 
information as members find necessary for the progressive manage- 
ment of their business : 

That there are no charges for such services other than the regular 
membership and general dues. In some cases out of the ordinary, 
nominal charges are made, but such cases arc very rare. 

II. Make the Best a Little Better. 

Co-operation is a term to juggle with. Some " co-operators " 
practice this religion for purely selfish motives; true co-operators 
believe in an equal division of its benefits. It is no desecration of 
modesty for this Association to make the statement that the seg- 

16 



merits of its official backbone arc composed of the elements of true 
co-operation. And in no feature of its work is thai fad so 
thoroughly exemplified as in the service rendered by its research 
laboratories. 

These laboratories are exactly what their name implies. Thej 
are manned by a corps of experts whose business it is to dig into the 
intricate chemical ami bacteriological problems which no rainier ran 
avoid. Bacteriology and chemistry are at once the fountain beads 
of all the good and all the ill there may be in a ran of food. The 
entire output of a plant may be irretrievably lost if. in its process- 
ing, there has been omitted some step which controls the develop- 
ment of certain destructive organisms or which forestalls destructive 
chemical action. The mechanical problems of a plant are ABC as 
compared with those of its chemistry and bacteriology. 

The Association's research laboratories are operated for the 
benefit of American canners and American consumers. The find- 
ings are published broadcast by means of bulletins. These labora- 
tories are conducted on the principle that a problem solved for one 
canner is a finding of value to any number. of canners. and therefore, 
to the industry and the consuming public. 

While some of the progressive canneries in this country maintain 
their own laboratories, this does not in the least conflict with or 
hamper the activities of the Association's laboratories. 

At a cost to canners of about $35,000 a year they serve the 
industry and the public. 

From the chapters of the laboratories' work suppose we take the 
case of a can of corn which when opened shows a dark color. That 
single can of corn is at once a problem for the investigator and a 
matter of importance to the industry. The average consumer is 
not a bacteriologist or a chemist. He has not the time nor inclina- 
tion to take that corn to a laboratory and have it examined. He 
would discard it and likely as not pronounce anathemas upon 
canned corn in particular and the canning industry in general. 

Now there did develop such a case which was investigated by these 
laboratories and it was found that the darkened color did not in the 
least indicate an impurity in the product or that it had in any sense 
become unfit for food. This color was due to the presence of an 
infinitesimal amount of copper extracted from the machinery during 

19 



the processing. The remedy was apparent. The tinning of such 
portions of the machinery as come in contact with brine or with 
the corn after it has been mixed with brine precludes the possibility 
of any off color in the finished product. 

Perhaps this sounds very simple and unworthy of serious refer- 
ence here. However, it has been selected because of its very 
simplicity. The simplest things often cause the most trouble. 

If it were the policy of this Association and this laboratory to 
present the result of such an investigation to the canner in whose 
plant the problem arose and to give him exclusive control of that 
information, wherein would the canning industry or the public be 
benefited? The publication of such facts is stock in trade for the 
entire canning industry and a square deal for the public. 

The scientific corps of the research laboratories is headed by 
Dr. W. D. Bigelow as food chemist, and Dr. A. W. Bitting as food 
technologist. They are assisted by trained experts. Both these 
heads were formerly engaged in research work in foods for the 
Federal Bureau of Chemistry. Their connection with this Associa- 
tion is a real acquisition by the industry. 

Another policy pursued by the laboratories is to keep its corps in 
intimate touch with the industry. While all of the analyses and 
examinations are made at the Washington headquarters, the stall' is 
(instantly travelling from plant to plant investigating the process- 
ing of foods. It often happens that they detect an unsafe practice 
in the plant before it ha- had time to levy its tribute on the finished 
product. 

While handling the general run of problems for members of the 
Association, the research corps is constantly branching out into 
new fields. It is looking ahead. For example: For many years 
a tin can was a tin can — nothing more. Any spoilage or discolora- 
tion of the product within it before the can was opened was charged 
against some fault in the processing. But the research laboratories 
thought differently of this and determined to find out to what extent 
different foods act differently upon the tin in which they are encased. 

The experts from this laboratory took up the question with manu- 
facturers of tin plate. And quite recently co-operation between 
these two factors has been effected. In the past individual and more 
or less non-correlated investigations were pursued. 

20 



But like the canners themselves, tin plate manufacturers realize 
that the problems affecting their business have by do means been 
solved. And at this moment the scientific corps of the research 
laboratories, co-operating with tin plate manufacturers, is making 
a thorough study of the action of various foods u] the tin con- 
tainers. The object of this work is to eventually determine the 
composition of a tin plate best adapted for use in cans for each 
variety of food. 

There is little or no need to attempt an explanation of the inside 
machinery of the research laboratories. Writers of ability and note 
have relieved the Association of that. The laboratories have 
attracted them. The constructive research work conducted for the 
benefit of the industry and the public has attracted the investigator 
and writer of modern achievement articles for newspapers and 
magazines. This one manifestation of public appreciation of the 
work the Association is conducting is not its least compensation. 

Such questions as what constitutes an ideal shipping case from 
the standpoint of the shipper and the public carrier have arisen 
from time to time and have been taken up by this Association in 
conjunction with organizations of the trade at large. A get-together 
on such questions means the elimination of waste, loss of time, and 
confusion regarding claims for damage in shipping. 

The use of cannery by-products is being given thorough study by 
the laboratory experts to the end that there shall be a more efficient 
utilization of these. 

A study of the methods for examining evaporated milk revealed 
an error in the methods usually employed for reading the modifica- 
tions of the Babcock method. The conclusion is that exact results 
can only be secured with the Boese-Gottlieb method. 

A thorough inspection of a number of canneries led to the publi- 
cation of a bulletin on safety measures for such plants, a subject of 
prime economic importance to the industry. 

The problem of eliminating " swells " and " springers " and an 
inquiry into the causes of these have been given systematic atten- 
tion in the laboratories and the results published in a bulletin. 

Each day brings a new quota of problems, and it is perhaps 
unwise to suggest the extent to which the laboratorv work will 

Do *> 

23 



eventually modify certain methods and systems now conceded to be 
economically and scientifically correct. 

It should be remembered that : 

The Association's laboratories are conceded to be second to none 
of their kind in the United States ; 

That they are maintained by the Association for the benefit of the 
industry at large and the consuming public: 

That there are no extra charges for information and advice, and 
that charges for examination and analysis of foods are merely 
sufficient to cover actual costs; 

That the laboratories were not intended for routine work, but 
were established for the purpose of looking ahead and working out 
many of the problems which some day will affect the pack : 

That the work within the walls of the laboratory is followed by 
work within the walls of the plant from which the original problem 
came ; 

That these laboratories are designed for ((instructive research 
work; 

That the laboratories are at all times open to suggestions, and 
invite and respect the hearty eo-operati<m of laboratories maintained 
by individual plants. 

ill. Spoiling a " < ; Stori .'" 

The American public likes a thrill. It has decreed that no 
newspaper story is a thriller unless the head and subheads contain 
at least one reference to the transportation of a soul across the River 
Styx, or the light-fingered removal of several pounds of diamonds, 
or perhaps the collapse of a sky-scraper. The American public 
demands action and sensation; therefore the newspapers supply it. 

Consequently it is a good find and a "good story" when John 
Jones is reported to have relieved the life insurance company of 
several thousand dollars by the mere expedient of eating a can of 
meat, or peas, or tomatoes, or corn — or something equally inolTensive. 
Somewhere, at some time, somebody acquired a n\<r of ptomaine 
poisoning and somebody was made ill by zinc poisoning. Conse- 
quently, if a slumbering attack of brainstorm or acute indigestion 
rouses itself into activity after a meal at which canned foods were 
eaten, " ptomaine " or "zinc poisoning" is likely to run through 
the newspaper story of the domestic tragedy. 

24 



It is needless to say that such reports of ptomaine and zinc poison- 
ing as a result of eating canned foods are due to a too hasty diagnosis 
or confusion of facts in the case. But such stories, if allowed to 
circulate unchallenged, have a most disastrous effect upoB the good 
name which the American canning industry lias labored so hard to 
establish for its products. It is the avowed function of this Associa- 
tion to run to earth every such report as comes to its notice. 

The Association has a decidedly effective method of its own for 
handling such cases. Suffice it to say that each one is investigated 
on the ground, and, if necessary, between the very walls of the house 
from which it came. And investigated in such a way as to leave 
no stone unturned to bring out the true facts. When unassailable 
documentary evidence refuting the story has been obtained, the 
Association pursues its established policy of communicating this 
information to the paper or papers which printed the first erroneous 
account. The correction is made and full facts in the case are laid 
before the public. This spoils a " good story," but is no more than a 
square deal to the American canning industry and to the public. 
The newspapers realize this and are most prompt and courteous in 
making the necessary corrections. 

It would be impossible to enumerate the thousands of cases of this 
character which have been handled by the Association's system. 
Huge files in the Washington headquarters are filled with records of 
these investigations. Such stories are gross libels on the industry, 
and it is neither the intention of the Association nor the industry as 
a whole to suffer groundless slander. But every libel investigated 
and proved unfounded is a dynamic lift to a higher plane for the 
entire industry. This is one phase of the educational work con- 
ducted by the Association. 

IV. That Business Across the Ocean. 

American aggressiveness never permitted an American industry 
to be satisfied with activity solely within the United States. The 
aggressive ones plan to stretch their arms across the seas. Likewise 
the canning industry. This business wants expansion, and can take 
care of it ; but there are certain hurdles to be taken and certain stone 
walls to be breached before cans of American foods will be ranged 
along the shelves of stores in many foreign lands. 

27 



In certain countries of South America, for example, an invasion 
by the American canning* industry is absolutely impossible until 
certain prohibitive tariffs have been either modified or abolished. 
So high are these tariffs against American canned foods that the 
average South American must look upon them as a luxury rather 
than an e very-day necessity. 

It is impossible for this Association or for any other association 
to drive the entering wedge for foreign business without the aid of 
the United States Government. American business diplomacy can 
pave the way for this expansion. 

It is not feasible at this time to explain in detail the numerous 
overtures and communications which this Association has made to 
the State Department, the Department of Commerce, and other 
Government offices, asking for assistance to the end of opening the 
foreign field to American canned foods. There has been no lobby- 
ing, no attempt to use any politics: in fact, no means whatever have 
been employed other than the most straightforward appeals and 
statements of facts. Suffice it to say that a spirit of hearty co- 
operation exists between this Association and Government offices 
named. 

It might be well to repeat that the National Canners Association 
is absolutely lacking in an\ force commonly referred to as a lobby. 
Tbe Association does not believe in lobbying and will have none of it. 

Should there be legislation pending in the halls of Congress, 
which, if passed, might be derogatory or unjust to the legitimate 
interests of tbe American canning industry, without recourse to any 
lobbying, this Association, through its members, presents such facts 
to tbe law makers as shown tbe hidden dangers in tbe pending 
legislation. Facts — acid-proof facts— ring louder and bit harder 
than all the sugar-coated verbiage that lobbists can command. This 
industry lias been founded on facts, and considers fact- good enough 
to serve it in any crisis. 

V. Gentlemen, Let's Arbitrate. 
It would be utterly inconsistent with tbe policies of this Associa- 
tion if no safety-first measures were taken to guard against friction 
witbin tbe industry resulting from business controversies. There is 
no business conducted wherein differences between buyer and seller 
do not arise, and these should lie settled in a way that leaves good 

28 



HIPPODROME PARTY. NEW YORK. FEBRUARY II, 1915. GIVEN TO THE MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CANNERS ASSOCIATION. 
CANNING MACHINERY AND SUPPLIES ASSOCIATION AND THE CANNED FOOD BROKERS ASSOCIATION. BY AMERICAN CAN COMPANY 



feeling in its wake. To this end the Association practices arbi- 
tration. 

A national uniform plan of arbitration as ratified by executive 
committees of the National Canners Association, Wholesale Grocers 
Association and Board of Directors of the National Canned Goods 
and Dried Fruit Brokers Association seems to supply the necessary 
machinery. This plan calls for an agreement on the part of those 
involved in disagreement that the findings of the arbitration com- 
mittee appointed by the other associations and endorsed by the 
National Canners Association shall be final. Suffice it to say that 
arbitration awards have on the whole been satisfactory to all parties 
concerned. 

Furthermore the National Canners Association has inaugurated 
a Bureau of Adjustment which undertakes the investigation and 
settlement of all differences between buyer and seller, to which a 
member of the National Canners Association is a party. This 
bureau is maintained out of the regular funds of the Association, 
and where special service is rendered nominal charges are fixed 
by the committee and paid by the party or parties benefited. 

The Bureau of Adjustment is the active expression of the Asso- 
ciation's effort to eliminate friction and to foster good fellowship. 

It is well to emphasize the fact that this industry is not content 
to live within itself. No industry is independent of all others. 
Manufacturers must co-operate and affiliate with dealers. On the 
other hand, dealers must understand the ethics and creeds of those 
who furnish them goods to sell. 

The canning industry, through its Association, has made every 
effort to cultivate stronger relations with wholesale, retail, and 
brokers associations whose interests are interwoven with those_of the 
canners. All are pulling together, to which attests the large num- 
ber of committees composed of members from the National Canners 
Association and of dealers associations, which are at work on prob- 
lems affecting mutual interests. 

The most striking manifestation of this policy of get-together and 
pull-together is found in the annual conventions of the Association. 
The conventions usually last about a week, and often upwards of 
4000 representatives of the trade and industry as a whole convene 
en masse and in various sub-sections to thrash out questions of 

mutual interest. 

29 



VI. And Finally. 

The membership of this Association now includes upwards of 
seventy per cent of the pack of the United States. This means 
that the industry has attained a seventy per cent degree of co- 
operative efficiency. Why not make it one hundred per cent? 

The Association is not a big-firm organization, nor does it solicit 
the membership of the big canners any more than it does the smaller 
ones. No interest is too small to be well served. 

About the only way by which this Association can prove its value 
is to undertake new work. The more varied this work and the 
more difficult, the stronger the Association becomes; really it does 
not know just what it can do. 

On preceding pages have been recorded some of the most promi- 
nent features of its work, but each day finds the Association 
struggling with a new problem. To old members as well as non- 
members, the Association wants to say: "Try the Association, for 
only by trial can it develop its possibilities." 

And one last word : 

This Association, though incorporated under the laws of Dela- 
ware, is not conducted for profit — of the kind which makes it neces- 
sary to file a report with the Collector of Internal Revenue. 

And whether you he a member or a non-member, so long as your 
business brings you into contact with the canning industry, remem- 
ber that a cordial welcome await.- you In the office of the Secretary 
of the Association in Washington. D. ('. These headquarters are 
located at 1739 II Street, Northwest, where also are maintained 
the research laboratories. 



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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



014 420 470 • 



